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2. Federated States of Micronesia
English is the official and common language. Also spoken are Chuukese (Trukese), Kosraean, Pohnpeian, Yapese, and Woleaian.
Other languages spoken in the country include Pingelapese, Ngatikese, Satawalese, Puluwatese, Mortlockese, and Mokilese.[citation needed] There are also about 3,000 speakers of Kapingamarangi and Ulithian, and under 1,000 speakers of Nukuoro.[citation needed] 3. Fiji
4. Indonesia 5. Kiribati Taetae ni Kiribati or Gilbertese, also Kiribati (sometimes Kiribatese), is a Micronesian language of the Austronesian language family. It has a basic verb–object–subject word order.
Over 99% of the 103,000 people living in Kiribati are ethnically I-Kiribati (wholly or partly)[4] and speak Kiribati. Kiribati is also spoken by most inhabitants of Nui (Tuvalu), Rabi Island (Fiji), Mili (Marshall Islands) and some other islands where I-Kiribati have been relocated (Solomon Islands, notably Choiseul Province and Vanuatu)[5] or emigrated (to New Zealand and Hawaii mainly).
Unlike many in the Pacific region, the Kiribati language is far from extinct, and most speakers use it daily. 97% of those living in Kiribati are able to read in Kiribati, and 80% are able to read English.[4] Countries by number of Kiribati speakers
Linguistics and studyThe Kiribati language has two main dialects: the Northern and the Southern dialects. The main differences between them are in the pronunciation of some words. The islands of Butaritari and Makin also have their own dialect. It differs from the standard Kiribati in vocabulary and pronunciation.Dialect listing
The Marshallese language (Marshallese: new orthography Kajin M̧ajeļ or old orthography Kajin Majōl, [kɑ͡æzʲinʲ(e͡ɤ) mˠɑɑ̯zʲɛ͡ʌɫ]), also known as Ebon, is a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken in the Marshall Islands by about 44,000 people, and the principal language of the country. There are two major dialects: Rālik (western) and Ratak (eastern). Marshallese, a Micronesian language, is a member of the Eastern Oceanic subgroup of the Austronesian languages.[4] The closest linguistic relatives of Marshallese are the other Micronesian languages, including Chuukese, Gilbertese, Kosraean, Nauruan and Pohnpeian. Marshallese shows 33% lexican similarity with Pohnpeian.[1] Within the Micronesian archipelago, Marshallese — along with the rest of the Micronesian language group — is not as closely related to the more ambiguously classified Oceanic language Yapese in Yap State, or to the Polynesian outlier languages Kapingamarangi and Nukuoro in Pohnpei State, and are even less closely related to the Sunda–Sulawesi languages of Palauan in Palau and Chamorro in the Mariana Islands. VariationThe Republic of the Marshall Islands contains 34 atolls that are split into two chains, the eastern Ratak Chain and the western Ralik Chain.[4] These two chains have different dialects, which differ mainly lexically, and are mutually intelligible.[1][4] The atoll of Ujelang in the west used to have "slightly less homogeneous speech",[1] but it has been uninhabited since 1980.[5]The Ratak and Ralik dialects differ phonetically in how they deal with stems that begin with double consonants.[4] Ratak Marshallese inserts a vowel to separate the consonants, while Ralik adds a vowel before the consonants (and pronounced an unwritten consonant phoneme /j/ before the vowel).[4] For example, the stem kkure 'play' becomes ukkure in Ralik Marshallese and kukure in Ratak Marshallese.[4] StatusMarshallese is the official language of the Marshall Islands and enjoys vigorous use.[1] As of 1979, the language was spoken by 43,900 people in the Marshall Islands.[1] Additional groups of speakers in other countries including Nauru and the United States bring the total number of Marshallese speakers to 49,550[1] Along with Pohnpeian and Chuukese, Marshallese stands out among Micronesian languages in having tens of thousands of speakers; most Micronesian languages have far fewer.[6] A dictionary and Bible translation have been published in Marshallese.[1]Nauru The Nauruan language is the official language of Nauru. English is widely understood and is used for most government and commercial purposes.[4] According to the 2011 census, 95.3% of the population speaks Nauruan, 66.0% speak English, and 11.9% speak another language.[15] Nauruan is an Austronesian language, however, no adequate written grammar of the language has been compiled, and its relationships to other Micronesian languages are not well understood.[24] New Zealand
Palau Palauan is one of the two official languages of the Republic of Palau, the other being English. It is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, and is one of only two indigenous languages in Micronesia that is not part of the Oceanic branch of that family, the other being Chamorro. Papua New Guinea
Samoa Samoan and English are official languages. Samoan Sign Language is used by at least some of the deaf population. Solomon Islands
Tonga The indigenous languages of the Kingdom of Tonga are the two Austronesian languages of Tongan and Niuafo'ou. Along with Tongan, English is also an official language. 98.5% of the Tongan population can read and write either English or Tongan, as of 1996. Tuvalu Tuvaluan, English, Gilbertese (on the island of Nui)[8] Vanuatu
Cook Islands The languages of the Cook Islands include English, Cook Islands Māori, or "Rarotongan," and Pukapukan. Dialects of Cook Islands Maori include Penrhyn; Rakahanga-Manihiki; the Ngaputoru dialect of Atiu, Mitiaro, and Mauke; the Aitutaki dialect; and the Mangaian dialect. Cook Islands Maori and its dialectic variants are closely related to both Tahitian and to New Zealand Māori. Pukapukan is considered closely related to the Samoan language. English and Cook Islands Maori are official languages of the Cook Islands. Niue Niuean /njuːˈeɪən/[3] (Niuean: ko e vagahau Niuē) is a Polynesian language, belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian languages. It is most closely related to Tongan and slightly more distantly to other Polynesian languages such as Māori, Sāmoan, and Hawaiian. Together, Tongan and Niuean form the Tongic subgroup of the Polynesian languages. Niuean also has a number of influences from Samoan and Eastern Polynesian languages. Niuean was spoken by 1600 people on Niue Island (97.4% of the inhabitants) in 1991, as well as by speakers in the Cook Islands, New Zealand, and Tonga, for a total of around 8,000 speakers. There are thus more speakers of Niuean outside the island itself than on the island. Most inhabitants of Niue are bilingual in English. In the early 1990s 70% of the speakers of Niuean lived in New Zealand.[4] DialectsNiuean consists of two main dialects, the older Motu dialect from the north of the island and the Tafiti dialect of the south. The words mean, respectively, the people of the island and the strangers (or people from a distance).The differences between the dialects are mainly in vocabulary or in the form of some words. Examples of differences in vocabulary are volu (Tafiti) vs matā (Motu) for scrape, scraper and lala (Tafiti) vs kautoga (Motu) for guava (plant); examples of differences in form include hafule (T) / afule (M), aloka/haloka, nai/nei, ikiiki/likiliki, and malona/maona. American Samoa Of the population, 91.6 percent are native Samoans, 2.8% are Asian, 1% are Caucasian, 4.2% are Mixed, and 0.3% are of other origin. Most people are bilingual. Samoan, a language closely related to Hawaiian and other Polynesian languages, is spoken natively by 91% of the people, while 80% speak English, 2.4% speak Tongan, 2% speak Japanese and other Asian languages, and 2% speak other Pacific islander languages.[2] At least some of the deaf population uses Samoan Sign Language. Easter Island Rapa Nui or Rapanui (English /ræpəˈnuːi/;[3] locally: [ˈɾapa ˈnu.i]) also known as Pascuan /ˈpæskjuːən/, or Pascuense, is an Eastern Polynesian language spoken on the island of Rapa Nui, also known as Easter Island. The island is home to a population of just under 4,000 and is a special territory of Chile. According to census data,[4] there are about 3,700 people on the island and on the Chilean mainland who identify as ethnically Rapa Nui. Census data do not exist on the primary known and spoken languages among these people and there are recent claims that the number of fluent speakers is as low as 800.[5] Rapa Nui is a minority language and many of its adult speakers also speak Spanish; most Rapa Nui children now grow up speaking Spanish and those who do learn Rapa Nui begin learning it later in life.[6] French Polynesia Languages spoken at home: French (official) 61.1%, Tahitian (official) 31.4%, Asian languages 1.2%, other 0.3%, unspecified 6% (2002) Other languages with only local (if any official) status: Marquesan (North Marquesan, South Marquesan), Puka-Pukan, Rarotongan (Cook Island Maori), Tuamotuan, Mangarevan, Tubuaian and Rapan. Guam and Northern Mariana Islands Chamorro (Chamorro: Finu' Chamorro or Chamoru) is an Austronesian language spoken by about 47,000 people (about 35,000 people on Guam and about 12,000 in the Northern Mariana Islands).[3] It is spoken by the Chamorro people which is the indigenous people of Guam and Northern Mariana Islands, both are US territory. The Chamorro language is currently threatened, with a precipitous drop in language fluency over the past century. It is estimated that 75% of the population of Guam was literate in the Chamorro language around the time the United States captured the island during the Spanish–American War[4] (similar language fluency estimates for other areas of the Mariana Islands during this time period do not exist). A century later, the 2000 U.S. Census showed that fewer than 20% of Chamorros living in Guam speak their native language fluently, and a vast majority of those were over the age of 55. A number of forces have contributed to the steep, post-WWII decline of Chamorro language fluency. A colonial legacy, beginning with the Spanish colonization of Guam in 1668, imposed power structures privileging the language of the region's colonizers. In Guam, the language suffered additional suppression when the U.S. Government banned Chamorro language completely in schools in 1922, and collected and burned all Chamorro dictionaries (Skutnabb-Kangas 2000: 206; Mühlhäusler 1996: 109; Benton 1981: 122). Similar policies were undertaken by the Japanese Government when they controlled the region during WWII. And post WWII, when Guam was ceded back to the United States, the American administrators of the island continued to impose “no Chamorro” language restrictions in local schools, teaching only English and disciplining students for speaking their indigenous tongue.[5] Even though these oppressive language policies were progressively lifted, the damage had already been done. Subsequent generations were often raised in households where only the oldest family members were fluent. Lack of exposure made it increasingly difficult to pick up Chamorro as a second language. Within a few generations, English replaced Chamorro as the language of daily life.[citation needed] There does exist a difference in the rate of Chamorro language fluency between Guam and the other Mariana Islands. On Guam (called Guåhan by Chamorro speakers, from the word guaha, meaning "have", but its English meaning is, "We Have", from the idea that they had everything they needed,[6][7]) the number of native Chamorro speakers has dwindled in the last decade or so, while in the Northern Mariana Islands, young Chamorros still speak the language fluently. Chamorro is still common among Chamorro households in the Northern Marianas, but fluency has greatly decreased among Guamanian Chamorros during the years of American rule in favor of American English, which is commonplace throughout the inhabited Marianas. Language Revitalization EffortsVarious representatives from Guam have unsuccessfully lobbied the United States to take action to promote and protect the language.[citation needed]In 2013, "Guam will be instituting Public Law 31-45, which increases the teaching of the Chamorro language and culture in Guam schools," extending instruction to include grades 7–10.[8] Other efforts have been made in recent times, most notably Chamorro Immersion Schools. One example is the Huråo Guåhan Academy, located at the Chamorro Village in Hagåtña, GU. This program is led by Ann Marie Arceo and her husband, Ray Arceo. According to Huråo's official YouTube page, "Huråo Academy is one if not the first Chamoru Immerison Schools that focus on the teaching of Chamoru language and Self-identity on Guam. Huråo was founded as a non-profit in June 2005." [9] The Academy has been praised by many for the continuity of the Chamoru language in this day and age. Other creative ways to incorporate and promote the Chamorro Language has been found in the use of applications for Smart Phones, Internet Videos and Television. From Chamorro Dictionaries,[10] to the most recent "Speak Chamorro" App,[11] efforts are growing and expanding in ways to preserve and protect the Chamorro Language and Identity. On YouTube, a popular Chamorro Soap-Opera titled "Siha"[12] has received mostly positive feedback from Native Chamorro Speakers on its ability to weave dramatics, the Chamorro Language and Island Culture into an entertaining program. On TV, "Nihi! Kids" is a show first of its kind, because the show is targeted "for Guam’s nenis that aims to perpetuate Chamoru language and culture while encouraging environmental stewardship, healthy choices and character development."[13] Hawaii Official languages
New Caledonia
Norfolk Islands There are two official languages of Norfolk Island, English and Norfuk. English, due to the influence of Great Britain and Australia, the two colonial powers who administered Norfolk Island, is the dominant language of the pair. Norfuk, a creole language based on English and Tahitian and brought to the island by the descendants of the Bounty mutineers from Pitcairn Island was spoken by 580 persons according to the 1989 census. It is closely related to Pitkern spoken on Pitcairn Island. Pitcairn Islands There are two languages of Pitcairn Island, English and Pitkern. Pitkern is a creole language based on eighteenth-century English and Tahitian and spoken by about fifty people inland not to mention those outside Adamstown, mostly dozens of children leaving Pitcairn while becoming adults. It is partly derived from eighteenth-century English because Pitcairn Island was settled by the Bounty mutineers in the eighteenth century, and they brought some people from Taihiti with them. Pitkern is closely related to Norfuk spoken on Norfolk Island, where some descendants of the mutineers subsequently settled. Tokelau Tokelau has two official languages: Tokelauan and English. Over 90% of the population speaks Tokelauan, and just under 60% speak English. Also, 45.8% of the population speak Samoan, and small percentages of the population speak Tuvaluan and Kiribati. Wallis and Futuna
Further information: Wallisian language and Futunan language
At the 2008 census, among the population whose age was 14 and older,
60.2% of people reported that the language they speak the most at home
is Wallisian, 29.9% reported that the language they speak the most at home is Futunan, and 9.7% reported that the language they speak the most at home is French.[10] On Wallis Island, the languages most spoken at home were Wallisian (86.1%), French (12.1%), and Futunan (1.5%).[10] On Futuna, the languages most spoken at home were Futunan (94.9%), French (4.2%), and Wallisian (0.8%).[10]At the same 2008 census, 88.5% of people whose age was 14 or older reported that they could speak, read and write either Wallisian or Futunan, whereas 7.2% reported that they had no knowledge of either Wallisian or Futunan.[10] 78.2% of people whose age was 14 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas 17.3% reported that they had no knowledge of French.[10] On Wallis Island, 81.1% of people whose age was 14 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas 14.3% reported that they had no knowledge of French.[10] On Futuna, 71.6% of people whose age was 14 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas 24.3% reported that they had no knowledge of French.[10] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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